ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF GUT MICRIBIOTA

 By Obinwa Maryann Ukamaka

Seminar presentation

INTRODUCTION

The epidemics of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus in the past twenty (20) years have led to numerous investigations concerning the mechanisms that are responsible for the development of these diseases (Rankinen et al., 2014).The general view is that insulin resistance is an early alteration of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity, and both diseases are strongly influenced by genetics and environment. Moreover, studies in the past ten years have shown that low-grade inflammation has an important role in the molecular mechanism of insulin resistance in these diseases and more recently (within the past five years) a new component that has both genetic and environmental factors is also being studied: the gut microbiota (Cani et al., 2015).

This way, a paradigm has been dismantled: microorganisms should no longer be associated with pathogenesis, since both bacteria and their eukaryote hosts benefit from their cooperative relationships (Lozupone et al., 2012). In humans, there are at least 100 trillion microbial cells, collectively called microbiota, distributed in complex and site-specific communities. As the genome of these bacteria contains hundreds of genes that do not exist in the human genome, we can consider our symbionts as an important extra organ.

This complex community bacteria, eukaryotes, viruses and Archea in its majority cannot be cultured. The reasons for this limitation are unknown growth requirements of the bacteria, selectivity of the media that are used, stress imposed by the cultivation procedures, necessity of strictly anoxic conditions, and the difficulties in simulating the interactions of bacteria with other microbes and host cells (Zoetenda et al.,2015). Thus, a new approach was introduced, culture-independent sequencing, which made detection of microbial genes and disease-associated patterns in our gut microbiota possible. The bacterial component of the microbiota has been extensively studied in the past few years, including high-investment studies such as the Human Microbiome Project and MetaHIT (Peterson et al., 2011).

Using this new approach made it possible to detect three dominating bacterial phyla in the human gastrointestinal tract: the gram-positive Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, and the gram-negative Bacteroidetes. Firmicutes is known as the largest bacterial phylum, comprehending 200 genera, which includes Lactobacillus, Mycoplasma, Bacillus, and Clostridium. In spite of Actinobacteria being also a dominant phylum, it is usually missed by RNA gene sequencing and can only be detected by fluorescent in situ hybridization (Qin et al., 2010).

Although gut microbiota has been described as relatively stable concerning its composition until old age, this temporal consistency considers that numerous variables are being held constant.

For example, dietary changes have been shown to have significant effects on the microbiota. Shifting mice to a high-fat, high-sugar Western diet, from a low-fat, plant polysaccharide-rich diet, changed the microbiota within 24 hours. Likewise, shifting from a high-fat/low-fiber diet caused notable changes in the gut microbiota within a day (Wu et al., 2015).

ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF GUT MICRIBIOTA

The human body contains trillions of microorganisms that inhabit our bodies during and after birth. The gastrointestinal tract starts to be colonized during the delivery of the baby. During the first two years of life the microbiota is unstable and less diverse than in the adulthood, when the complexity and diversity is higher. Many external factors influence the composition of the microbiota, especially the diet, the hygiene conditions and the use of antibiotics. During pregnancy, infant’s intestinal tract is free of microbes until exposed to maternal vaginal microbes during normal birth. Infants born through Caesarian section are exposed to maternal skin bacteria altering their bacterial gut composition. Feeding represents another source of microorganisms where breast fed babies have different gut microbiota composition than formula fed babies (Tanaka  et al., 2009). Introduction of solid food represents another shift in the composition of babies gut microbiota.

After the infants stages, gut microbiota remains relatively unchanged until old age where the composition changes again. Adult humans have more than 10 times the number of bacterial cells than the cells constituting the human body. Majority of microbiota in the GI tract are bacteria, nevertheless, viruses fungi and other microorganisms are still present. Even though, individuals have unique microbiota composition, gut microbiota is mainly members of four phyla (Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria). The distribution of microorganisms throughout the gastrointestinal tract is not homogenous. The stressful environment (gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, peristalsis) in the stomach and small intestine limits bacterial growth and the number of microorganisms. The gut microbiota plays different roles that are important for the host. They exert a trophic effect in the intestinal epithelium, favoring the development of the microvilli, which in turn favors the absorption of nutrients. The influence of microbiota in innate and adaptive immune system maturation contributes to systemic and local immune homeostasis and immune tolerance for a variety of antigens. The modulation of the immune system activity can influence the intestinal barrier function. The capacity to break down non-digested dietary molecules into metabolites such as short chain fatty acids (SCFS) and to synthesize vitamins demonstrates their importance to human nutrition.

Even though we are still far from identifying, let alone characterizing all bacteria in our system, advancing molecular biology techniques such as next-generation sequencing has tremendously contributed to our understanding of the gut microbiota (Ji and Nielsen.,2015). The use of gnotobiological methods to breed mice in a sterile environment provided an invaluable tool to understand the role of infecting controlled bacterial cultures and defined bacterial strains into animals.

DIABETES AND GUT MICROBIOTA

It’s becoming increasingly evident that gut microbiota is contributing to many human diseases including diabetes (both type 1 and type 2). Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease that is caused by the destruction of pancreatic β-cells by the immune system. Even though T1D is mainly caused by genetic defect, epigenetic and environmental factors have been shown to play an important role in this disease. Higher rates of T1D incidence have been reported in recent years that are not explained by genetic factors and have been attributed to changes in our lifestyle such diet, hygiene, and antibiotic usage that can directly affect microbiota. It has been shown that diabetes incidence in the germ free non-obese diabetic subjects or patients (NOD) was significantly increased which is in line with the observation that the rates of T1D is higher in countries with stringent hygiene practices (Guiden et al., 2015). Similarly comparison of the gut microbiota composition between children with high genetic risk for T1D and their age healthy controls showed less diverse and less dynamic microbiota in the risk group. In the Diabetes Prevention and Prediction (DIPP) study it was shown that new-onset T1D subjects had different gut microbiota composition than control (Murri et al., 2013).They showed that in the control group, mucin synthesis was induced by lactate- and butyrate-producing bacteria to maintain gut integrity while mucin synthesis was prevented by the non-butyrate-producing lactate-utilizing bacteria leading to β-cell autoimmunity and T1D (Othman et al.,2016).

Recently, research has pointed out that the intestinal microbiome might be an important contributor for the development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The use of genome wide association studies (GWAS) has achieved many elucidations in this matter. (Qin et al.,2013)characterized the gut microbiota ofT2Dpatients and observed increase in membrane transport of sugars, branched chain aminoacids transport, methane metabolism, xenobiotics degradation, and sulphate reduction. However, they observed decrease in the levels of butyrate biosynthesis, bacterial chemotaxis, flagellar assembly, vitamins and cofactors metabolism. This study has also shown that the gut environment of T2D individuals is one that stimulates bacterial defense mechanisms against oxidative stress and against drugs(Andrea and Mario, 2013).

GUT MICROBIOTA AND ITS ROLE IN ENERGY HOMEOSTASIS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF OBESITY

The metabolic activities of the gut microbiota have the end results of extracting calories from ingested dietary substances, helping to store those calories in host adipose tissue for later use,and providing energy and nutrients for microbial growth and proliferation  (Bäckhed  et al. , 2005). Demonstrated that conventionally raised mice have a 40% higher body fat content and 47% higher gonadal fat content than germ-free (GF) mice, despite lower food intake (Frazier et al 2011).

However, it has been suggested that the main routes under influence of gut microbiota that could contribute to obesity develop-ment are provision of extra calories, increased lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity, lipogenesis, increased intestinal permeability, endotoxemiaand endocannabinoid (eCB) system (Blaut and Klaus, 2012).Gut microbiota contribute to energy metabolism through the production of SCFA that are produced by colonic fermentation which involves the anaerobic breakdown of dietary fiber, protein and peptides. The most important SCFA produced are acetate, propionate and butyrate. Acetate and propionate are mostly produced byBacteriodetes phylum while butyrate is produced by theFirmicutesphylum (Othman  et al., 2016). These SCFA can provide additional calories when they are oxidized by the host, favoring the higher weight and fat gain observed in these animals. In addition, the binding of SCFA to G protein-coupled receptor (GPR) in the intestine induces the secretion of the hormone peptide YY (PYY). This hormone reduces intestinal transit time, increasing the time for nutrient absorption from the intestinal lumen. In fact, obese and overweight subjects presented higher concentration of SCFA in their feces in comparison to lean individuals (Bodoni et al, 2014).

Low grade inflammation is a hallmark of obesity. Production of proinflammatory cytokines are coordinated via the Toll- like receptors and the master regulator of  key inflammation cascades, the nuclear factor kappa(NF-kB) (Kim et al., 2012).

The LPL (lipopolysaccharide) activity influences the accumulation of triglycerides in the adipose tissue. The microbiota can affect the activity of this enzyme [H1] by influencing the expression of the protein, fasting-induced adipose factor (FIAF). In the absence of microbiota (germ-free mice)there is an observed higher expression of FIAF. On the other hand, the conventionalization of the germ-free animal causes inhibition of the expression of the FIAF and also stimulates body fat gain. It is suggested that FIAF is a circulating inhibitor of LPL activity. Thus, the inhibition of FIAF expression by the presence of microbiota allows higher activity of LPL and accumulation of triglycerides in adipocytes (Backhadet al, 2004).

Figure 2:  Alteration in gut microbiota composition due to obesity is accompanied by changes in activation of enzymes and pathways which leads to and increased inflammatory state and energy harvest.

AMPK: AMP- activated kinase, SCFA: Short chain fatty acids, LPL: Lipoprotein lipase, ACC: acetyl- CoA carboxylase, CPT1: Carnitinepalmitoyltransferase.

Source: Andrea and Mario., 2013

THE EFFECT OF GUT MICROBIOTA ON ENERGY METABOLISM

The biological functions controlled by the intestinal flora are related to the effectiveness of energy harvest by the bacteria, of the energy ingested but not digested by the host. Among the dietary compound escaping digestion in the upper part of the human gastro-intestinal tract, the polysaccharides constitute the major source of nutrient for the bacteria. Part of these polysaccharides could be transformed into digestible substances such as sugars, or short chain carboxylic acids, providing energy substrates which can be used by the bacteria or the host. The control of body weight depends on mechanisms subtly controlled over time and a small daily excess, as low as 1% of the daily energy needs, can have important consequences in the long term on body weight and metabolism (Hill, 2015). Consequently, the gut microbiota of obese subjects changed according to the loss of body weight occurring after a hypocaloric diet. It was demonstrated that two groups of bacteria are dominant in the intestinal tract, BacteroidetesandFirmicutes(Cani et al, 2008). The quantification and characterization of each dominant group of bacteria were carried out by measuring the concentration of the bacterial 16S rRNA. The number of Bacteroidetes bacteria depended on the weight loss whereas the Firmicutes bacteria group remained unchanged. Importantly, the bacterial lineage was constant one year after the dietary intervention for a given body weight, validating the bacterial signature of each individual. However, it could be related to the diet and in particular to the presence of dietary fibres (Cani et al, 2008).

 The gut bacteria from obese subjects are able to specifically increase the energy harvested from the diet, which provide an extra energy to the host. This conclusion was drawn from work showing that the axenic mice colonized with a conventional gut flora gain weight rapidly. The mechanisms of the apparent gain weight implied an increase in the intestinal glucose absorption, energy extraction from non-digestible food component (short chain fatty acids produced through the fermentation) and a concomitant higher glycemia and insulinemia, two key metabolic factors promoting lipogenesis. Thus an environmental factor such as gut microbiota regulates energy storage. The results, obtained both in rodents and human, suggest that obesity is associated with an altered composition of gut microbiota. However, the study did not demonstrate that the relative change in bacterial strains profile leads to different fates of body weight gain.

The original idea that bacteria can contribute to the maintenance of the host body weight, is characterized by numerous paradoxes. It is not clear, however, whether the small increased of energy extraction can actually contribute to a meaningful body weight gain within a short period of time, as suggested in the gut flora transplantation studies. Moreover, other studies have clearly shown that a diet rich in non-digestible fibres decreases body weight, fat mass and the severity of diabetes (Cani  et al., 2014). However, these dietary fibres increase strains of bacteria able to digest these fibers and provide extra-energy for the host as they thus increase the total amount of bacteria in the colon (Kolida et al.,  2013). This mechanism is not completely in accordance with the ‘‘energy harvesting theory’’ according to which the fermentation of non digestible polysaccharides would provide energy substrates for the host.

In addition, it is difficult to conclude that small changes in energy ingestion (1–2%) can induce sufficient quick variation in weight (within two weeks) as observed in an American study (Backhed et al., 2005). Importantly, the axenic mice colonized with the gut flora from normal mice ate more than their conventional mice counterparts; therefore, the body weight gain can also be dependent of the increased food intake. A last crucial point, which cannot depend only on the role played by the bacteria to harvest energy from nutrients escaping digestion in the upper part of the intestine, concerns a study showing that axenic mice are more resistant to diet-induced obesity. The authors maintained axenic or conventionalized mice on a high-fat/high-carbohydrates diet (western diet) and found that conventiona-lized animals fed the western diet gained significantly more weight and fat mass and had higher glycemia and insulinemia than the axenic mice. Strikingly, and opposite to the results previously observed in axenic mice fed a normal chow diet, the amount of western diet taken up by an axenic or a conventionalized mouse was similar and hence had similar fecal energy output. All those data suggest that a bacterially related factor is responsible for the development of diet-induced obesity and diabetes.

GUT MICROBIOTA AND INFLAMMATION

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are metabolic diseases characterized by a low grade inflammation (Wellen and Hotamisligil, 2011). In the models of high fat diet induced obesity, adipose depots express several inflammatory factors IL-1(interleukin-1), TNF-a (tumor necrosis factor-a) and IL-6 (interleukin-6) (Weisberg et al., 2010). These cytokines impaired insulin action and induce insulin resistance. For example, TNF-a phosphorylates serine residue substrate (IRS-1) from the insulin receptor leading its inactivation and it has been proposed that nutritional fatty acids trigger inflammatory response by acting via the toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) signalling in the adipocytes and macrophages. It was shown that the capacity of fatty acids to induce inflammatory signalling following a high-fat diet feeding is blunted in the TLR4 knock out mice (Shi et al, 2014). TLR4 is the co-receptor for the lipopolysaccharides (LPS) constituent of the Gram negative bacteria.  A triggering factor of the early development of metabolic diseases is the lipopolysaccharides, a molecule involved early in the cascade of inflammation. Furthermore, LPS is a strong inducer of inflammatory response and is involved in the release of several cytokines that are key factors triggering insulin resistance. The concept of dietary excess is more or less associated to high-fat feeding-induced inflammation. Experiment has shown that mice fed a high-fat diet for a short term period as two to four weeks exhibit a significant increase in plasma LPS. An endotoxemia that is characterized as a ‘‘metabolic endotoxemia’’, since, the LPS plasma concentrations were 10 to 50 times lower than those obtained during a septic shock. LPS is absorbed into intestinal capillaries to be transported by lipoproteins (i.e. chylomicrons). High-fat diet feeding changed gut microbiota in favour of an increase in the Gram negative to Gram positive.

Therefore high-fat feeding induced a low tone inflammation which originates from the intestinal absorption of the LPS.

Thus data support the key idea that the gut microbiota can contribute to the pathophysiology of obesity and type 2 diabetes. High-fat feeding alters the intestinal microbiota composition were Bifidobacteriumspp were reduced. Several studies have shown that this specific group of bacteria reduced the intestinal endotoxin levels and improved mucosal barrier function (Cani et al., 2013). The unique advantage of the prebiotic dietary fibres (oligofructose, [OFS] was used to specifically increase the gut bifidobacteria content of high fat diet treated mice. Among the different gut bacteria analysed, plasma LPS concentrations correlated negatively with Bifidobacterium spp. Together, these findings suggest that the gut microbiota contributes to the pathophysiological regulation of endotoxemia, and sets the tone of inflammation for the occurrence of diabetes/obesity. Thus, it would be useful to develop specific strategies for modifying gut microbiota to favourbifidobacteria growth and prevent the deleterious effect of high-fat diet-induced metabolic diseases (Cani et al.,2013).

CD14 is a key molecule involved in the innate immune system is a multifunctional receptor constituted by a phosphatidyl

inositol phosphate-anchored glycoprotein of 55 kDa expressed on the surface of monocytes, macrophages and neutrophils.

CD14KO mice were hypersensitive to insulin even when fed a normal diet, suggesting that CD14 could be modulator of insulin sensitivity in physiological conditions. As a matter of fact, CD14KO mice resist high-fat diet and chronic LPS-induced metabolic disorders. Similarly hepatic steatosis, liver and adipose tissue inflammation and adipose tissue macrophages infiltration was totally blunted in the CD14KO mice fed a high-fat diet orbifidobacteria microflora.

Figure 3:Signalling of LPs via NF-B and MAPK. ERK: extracellular signal related kinase, IL: Interleukin, IKB: Inhibitor of kappa B, IKK: IKB kinase, INOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase, IRAK: Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase, JNK : c-jun NH₂ –terminal kinase, LBP: Lipopolysaccharide binding protein, LPS: Lipopolysaccharide, MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase, MCP-1: monocyte chemotatic protein-1, MD-2: mycloiddifferentiation protein 2, MyD88: mycloid differentiation primary  response gene 88, NF-KB: Nuclear factor Kappa B, NIK: NF-KB inducing kinase, TLR: toll-like receptor, TNF: tumor necrosis factor, TRAF6: TNF receptor-associated factor 6.

Source:Boroni et al., 2014.

MODULATION OF GUT MICROBIOTA

The importance of gut microbiota in the maintenance of health has been receiving more attention worldwide. The homeostasis of gut microbiotadepends on the characteristics of the host (age, gender, genetic factors) and the environment (stress, drugs, toxic agents, infections, diseases). However, the influence of diet is also evident (Boroni Moreira et al., 2014). The conductance of future studies aiming to understand how changes in diet modulate gut microbiota composition is of great interest to help menu plannings that simulate the achievement of a favorable microbiota.

Weight loss promotes changes in gut microbiota composition (Fleissner et al., 2015). The intake of specific dietary components (fatty acids, carbohydrates, micronutrients, prebiotics, probiotics) can result in changes in the composition of gut microbiota and modulate the expression of genes in the host, especially in organs as intestine, muscle, liver and adipose tissue (Boroni Moreira et al., 2014,).

The relevance of the use of prebiotics and probiotics in human’s obesity treatment is supported by few results obtained in interventional studies. However, animal models show potential beneficial effects. For example, genetically obese mice and mice fed with high-fat diet were given the prebiotic oligofructose. After the intervention it was observed a reduction in the circulatory levels of IL-18 and IL-1β. These cytokines are considered as gut microbial related immunologic factors that drive the obesity development (Vijay-Kumar et al., 2014,).

Amongst probiotics, Lactobacillus plantaraum shows a potential to modulate negative effects of high-fat diets. High dietary fat intake increased body weight gain, white adipose tissue weight, mean adipocyte size and serum total cholesterol and leptin concentrations, and decreased serum adiponectin concentration in mice. The administration of L. plantaraum to mice significantly reduced the mean adipocyte size and tended to reduce the white adipose tissue weight and serum total cholesterol and leptin concentrations as compared with the vehicle-administered mice. Thus, it is suggested that gut

microbiota is an important and promising target for the treatment of obesity (Takemura et al.,2014).

CONCLUSION

Changes in bacterial phyla proportions during obesity have captured science attention worldwide, especially because of their effects on metabolism. Increased proportion of firmicutes and actinobacterial and decreased proportion of bacteriodetes have been associated with increased serum LPS levels, insulin resistance, increased body weight gain and other comorbidities of  the metabolic syndrome. The mechanisms that underlie this regulation are unclear, but their unrevealing [H2] brings potential interventions for the treament of obesity and type 2 diabeties.

REFERENCE

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Cani, P.D., Bibiconi,R., Knauf, C.,Waget, A., Neyrinck, A.M., Delzenne, N.M., Burcelin, R. (2015).Changes in gut microbiota control metabolic endotoxomia-inducer inflammation in high fat diet-induced obesity and diabetes in mice. Diabetes.57:1470-1481.

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Cani, P.D., Dewever, C., and Delzenne, N.M. (2014). Inulin-type fructans modulate gastrointestinal peptides involved in appetite regulation. British Journal ofNutrition .92(3:)521-526.

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Hill, J.O. (2015). Understanding and addressing the epidemic of obesity: an energy balance prespective. Endo Rev Dec.27(7):750-761.

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Kim, S.J., Choi, Y.H., and Pack, T. (2014). Obesity activates Toll-like receptor-mediated proinflammatory signaling cascades in the adipose tissue. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 32:11-122.

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Othman, A.B., Mazin, A.Z., Ibrahim, T., and  Mohammed, A. (2016). The role of Gut Microbiota in the development of obesity and diabetes. Biomed. Central.15:108-112.

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Vijay-Kumar, M., Aitken, J.D., Carvalho, F.A., Cullender, T.C., Mwangi, S., and Srinivasan, W.(2010). Metablic syndrome and altered gut microbiota in mice lacking Toll-like receptor 5 Science.328:228-231.

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 [H1]Which enzyme?

 [H2]recast

CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER THREE:  METHODOLOGY

CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA

Increasing temperature (global warming) and decreasing precipitation in most parts of the world are the greatest impacts of climate change. These bring about either negative or positive ecological impacts in different parts of the world. The increasing temperature has led to increased land based ice instability and its melting. The thawing of the Arctic, cool and cold temperate ice, the increasing rainfall in some parts of the world and expansion of the oceans as water warms has started impacting on sea level rise, coastal inundation and erosion.  The current global estimate of sea level rise is 0.2 m and it is projected to increase to 1 m by the year 2100 (Hengeveld et al. 2002; Hengeveld et al. 2005).  The implication is that the present 0.2 m sea level rise has inundated 3,400 km2 of the coastal region of Nigeria, and if the sea level rise attains the projected 1m on or before 2100 then 18,400 km2 of the coastal region may be inundated (NEST 2003). Coastal settlements like Bonny, Forcados, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warri and Calabar among others that are less than 10 m above the sea-level would be seriously threatened by a metre rise of sea-level. The sea incursion due to sea-level rise means salt-water intrusion into the fresh water, invasion and destruction of mangrove ecosystems, coastal wetlands and coastal beaches.  The worst impact is population displacement, which may result in communal crisis.  The coastal inundation and erosion with their associated population displacement are currently major environmental problems in Nembe, Eket and other coastal settlements in Bayelsa, Delta, Cross River, Rivers,

and Lagos States of Nigeria. It is estimated that a metre rise in sea level will displace about 14 million people from the coastal areas of Nigeria (Abu 2007). Young (2006) also observes that sea-level rise up to a metre will displace 10, 13 and 72 million people in the coastal areas of Egypt, Bangladesh and China respectively. The increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall have led to frequent drought and desertification. The Sahara desert is observed to be expanding to all directions trying to engulf the Sahellian region of Africa with annual expansion of 1-10 km (Odjugo and Ikhuoria 2003; Yaqub 2007). Odjugo and Ikhuoria (2003) also observe that Nigeria north of 12oN is under severe threat of desert encroachment and sand dunes are now common features of desertification in states like Yobe, Borno, Sokoto, Jigawa and Katsina.  The migrating sand dunes have buried large expanse of arable lands, thus reducing viable agricultural lands and crops’ production. This has prompted massive emigration and resettlement of people to areas less threatened by desertification.  Such emigration gives rise to social effects like loss of dignity and social values. It often results in increasing spate of communal clashes among herdsmen and farmers and such clashes resulted in the death of 186 people in six northern states of Nigeria between 1998 and 2006 (Yugunda 2002; Yaqub 2007).  Akonga (2001) also shows that most of the destitute that emigrated as a result of drought and desertification usually move to nearby urban areas to beg for alms thereby compounding the already tense urbanization problems. Climate change will alter all aspects of the hydrological cycle ranging from evaporation through precipitation, run off and discharge (Mcguire et al. 2002). The global warming and decreasing rainfall together with the erratic pattern of rainfall produce a minimal recharge of groundwater resources, wells, lakes and rivers in most parts of the world especially in Africa thereby creating water crisis.  In Nigeria, many rivers have been reported to have dried up or are becoming more seasonally navigable while Lake Chad shrunk in area from 22,902 km2 in 1963 to a mere 1304 km2 in 2000. This shows that what is left of Lake Chad in the year 2000 is just 5.7% of 1963 (Odjugo 2007). Awake (2009) also confirms the fact that Lake Chad has shrunk by 95% since the 1960s and Aral Sea in Central Asia was the fourth largest lake in the planet in 1960.                   The water scarcity will create the tendency for concentration of users around the remaining limited sources of water.  Under such circumstances, there is increased possibility of additional contamination of the limited sources of water and transmission of water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, guinea worm infection and river blindness. Odjugo (2000) and DeWeerdt (2007) note that the increasing temperature will mean northward migration of mosquitoes and malaria fever which will extend from the tropical region to warm temperate region while the sporogony of the protozoa causing the malaria accelerates from 25 days at 10^OC to 8 days at 32^OC. This paper also conceptualizes the relationship between climate change and human health(Fig 4). As shown in figure 4, the excessive heat, increasing water stress, air pollution and suppressed immune system occasioned by climate change will result in increasing incidence of excessive death due to heat exhaustion, famine, water related diseases (diarrhoea, cholera and skin diseases), inflammatory and respiratory diseases (cough, and asthma), depression, skin cancer and cataract.

One of the greatest impacts of climate change is the worsening condition of extreme weather events like drought, flood, rainstorms, windstorms, thunderstorms, landslides, avalanches and tsunamis, among others (Odjugo 1999, 2001b; Changnon 2001). Odjugo (2008) notes that the frequency and magnitude of wind and rainstorms did not only increase, they also killed 199 people and destroyed property worth N85.03 billion in Nigeria between 1992 and 2007. Buadi and Ahmed (2006) had similar result when they reported that rainstorms claimed 42 lives in southern Cameroon between 2000 and 2005. Between 1950 and 2000, the increasing frequency and intensity of rainstorms have created enormous damages estimated at $87 billion in property losses, $19 billion in crop losses and losses of over 12,000 human lives in the United States of America alone (Changnon 2001).

Climate change has started to, and will continue to impact negatively on agriculture and food security especially in tropical and subtropical regions because greenhouse gas emissions would increase the risk of hunger by additional 80 million people by 2080 in Africa and southern Asia (Odjugo 2001a; DFID 2006; Nwafor 2006, 2007; DeWeerdt 2007). Odjugo (2008) shows that climate change has led to a shift in crops cultivated in northern Nigeria. The paper (Odjugo 2008) quoting Ahmed (1978) reveals that as at 1978, the preferred crops the farmers cultivated were guinea corn followed by groundnut and maize, but due to increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall amount and duration occasioned by climate change, the farmers as a means of adaptation in 2007  shifted to the production of millet followed by maize and beans. Another major problem to agriculture in Nigeria due to climate change is the reduction of arable lands. While the sea incursion is reducing the arable land of the coastal plains, the desert encroachment with its associated sand dunes is depriving farmers of their agricultural farmlands and grazing rangelands. Moreover, the frequent droughts and lesser rains have started shortening the growing season thereby causing crops failure and food shortage. It has been shown that drought, desert encroachment and coastal inundation have started affecting the country’s ecosystem leading to ecological destabilization due to climate change impact in the semi-arid region of Northern Nigeria (Odjugo and Ikhuoria 2003 ; Ayuba et al.  2007).

         

The Climate Change Phenomenon

A drastic change in the climate system either due to natural forces or unsustainable human activities results in climate change. The later is regarded as the basic cause of on-going climate change and the climate and the advanced countries are most responsible (DeWeerdt, 2007). IPCC (2007) shows that observe red climate data from developed countries reveal significant change in response to global warming but there is remarkable lack of geographic balance in data and literature on observed changes with marked scarcity in developing countries. It is on this premise that this chapter is structured to assess the causes, rates and effect of climate change and global warming with emphasis on Nigeria.

The developed nation emits more of GHGs. While they accounted for over 75% of the total emissions, the developing nations are responsible for less than 25%. Industries, water pollution and agricultural production to a large extent and vehicular fumes to a lesser degree are the major sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the developed world. Nigeria like most developing countries is not like an industrialized nation so automobiles are therefore the major sources of air pollution in the urban areas. This is because most vehicles imported into the country are either fairly used or old ones which emits lots of carbons into the atmosphere. Carbon emissions from motorcycles are even worse than those from vehicles in Nigeria.  Most commercial motorcycle riders in Nigeria usually add engine oil to the petrol, which automatically turns the petrol into gasoline. Although gasoline burns slower than petrol, it emits more carbons. The motorcycle riders save fuel at the expense of the environment. The failure of the power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN) to provide efficient and effective electricity has resulted in majority of Nigeria buying generators to provide individual thermal electricity, and these do not only constitute noise pollution but also emit a lot of carbon into the atmosphere. Gas flaring is another source of GHGs emission in Nigeria. Nigeria is the largest gas flaring nation in the world. She flares more than 70% of hr natural gas (odjugo, 2007).

Impact of climate change in Nigeria

Impact as used may be negative or positive or combination. Climate change has stated imparting and will continue to affect global temperatures, water resources, ecosystems, agriculture and health among others. Continued GHGs emission at or above the current rate would cause further warming and induced many changes in the global climate system during the 21^st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20^th century.

In Nigeria temperatures has been on the increase. The increase between 1901 and 1938 was not much. The increase became so rapid since the early 1970s. The man temperature between the 1901 and 1938 was 26.04 while the man between 1971 and 2008 was 27.83. this indicates a mean increase of 1.78C for the two climate periods. This is significantly higher than the global increase of 0.74C since instrumental global temperature measurement started in 1860. Should this trend continue unattended to, Nigeria may experience high temperature increase between the middle (2.5C) and high (4.5C) by the year 2100. The result is a clear indication that Nigeria is experiencing global mean temperature (Odjugo, 2010). The observed temporal increase is also evident in the spatial increase. Between 1901 and 1938, the southernmost part of the country was marked by 25.5C isotherms while the northernmost was 28.5C. With the global warming becoming more pronounced, the southernmost part was marked by 26.5C isotherms and the north 30C. This study also noticed that the increase in temperature is more in the northern part of the country than in the southern part.

The temporal rainfall pattern in Nigeria shows a declining trend. Between 1901 and 1938, rainfall decrease was negligible by 1971- 2008 the decline became so pronounced. The mean rainfall value for the 1901 -  2008 was 1571mm while it deceased to 1480mm in 1971-2008 this shows a decrease of  91mm between the two climate periods. The decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures are basic features of global warming and climate change (odjugo, 2005).

In the 1901-1938 climate periods, the 600mm isohyets engulfed nguru, but it was replaced by 500mm during the 1971-2008 climate periods. Moreover, prior to 1938, the 1200 mm isohyets that found close to Kaduna, has dropped to Minna axis.

Another prominent change in rainfall pattern in Nigeria is that the areas experiencing double rainfall maximal is undergoing gradual shift in the short-dry season (locally referred to as August break) from the month of August to July. The short-dry season is a brief period of low rainfall (dry spell) that separates’ the two rainfall peak. In 1901-1938, the short-dry season occurred 31 years in the month of August and 7 years in July. By 1971-2008, the short-dry season occurred 11 years in the month of August, 23 years in the month of July and four years for both months. This implies that the dry spell which used to occur in the month of August followed by heavy rains in the month of September (1901-1938) now shifted to July followed by wet period in the months of August and September (1971-2008).

SAINT OF THE DAY

Gospel

Luke 6:12-19

12In these days he went out to the mountain to pray; and all night he continued in prayer to God. 13And when it was day, he called his disciples, and chose from them twelve, whom he named apostles; 14Simon, whom he named Peter, and Andrew his brother, and James and John, and Philip, and Bartholomew, 15and Matthew, and Thomas, and James the son of Alphaeus, and Simon who was called the Zealot, 16and Judas the son of James, and Judas Iscariot, who became a traitor. 17And he came down with them and stood on a level place, with a great crowd of his disciples and a great multitude of people from all Judea and Jerusalem and the seacoast of Tyre and Sidon, who came to hear him and to be healed of their diseases; 18and those who were troubled with unclean spirits were cured. 19And all the crowd sought to touch him, for power came forth from him and healed them all.

ABOUT BLESSED BERTRAND OF GARRIGUE

Blessed Bertrand gets the last part of his name from the village in southern France in which he was born. Those of the older writers who speak of his birthplace generally say that it was the Garrigue near Alais, in the present Department of Gard, which borders on the Mediterranean Sea. The writer of the sketch of his life in the Année Dominicaine, possibly basing his conclusion on Abbé J. P. Isnard’s Saint Bertrand de Garrigue, thinks this honor belongs to Drome, a department just northeast of Gard, and in the Diocese of Valence. There is, he says, a place in this civic division called Garrigue, where local tradition holds that Blessed Bertrand was born, and the ruins of an ancient manor house are still pointed out as the home of his parents. Others, by way of compromise, suggest that he might have been born near Alais, but that he was taken to “Bouchet” in his early youth. Father Touron says that be first saw the light of day in the old County (Comtat) of Venaissin, in the Department of Vaucluse, just south of Drome and east of Gard.(1)

Even with the Frenchman who is not a native of either of these departments it matters little which of the above opinions is correct; for the three governmental divisions mentioned border the one on the other, and afford an approximate idea of the part of France in which our blessed was born..(2) We have seen no date given for his birth, but he was probably a few years younger than Saint Dominic. Bertrand’s parents, who were splendid Catholics, trained him well in his religion. They were also close friends of the Cistercian Sisters of the Convent of Notre Dame of the Woods (du Bosquet), at Bouchet. These associations must have made a strong impression on the tender mind of Bertrand, for he was a pious youth, and given to the practice of virtue.

It is no matter of surprise to see one so circumstanced turn his thoughts towards the ecclesiastical state. Indeed, Bertrand seems to have been ordained at an early age. From his childhood he had had personal experience of the abominations committed by the Albigenses; for he had seen with his own eyes how they defied the laws of both God and man, how they desecrated churches and convents, how they trampled all authority under foot, and how little they valued the lives of those who opposed them..(3) When a young priest, therefore, the man of God did not hesitate to join the band of missionaries, under the direction of the Cistercian Fathers, delegated by the Holy See to bring the benighted Albigenses back to the ways of civilized life, no less than back into the bosom of the Church.

Here Saint Dominic found him at the return of Bishop Didacus (or Diego) de Azebes from Rome, for Bertrand was on the ground before the founder of the Friars Preacher. In fact, he seems to have been one of the first missionaries with whom the holy man from Caleruega came in contact. From the outset the two ambassadors of Christ became fast friends. Cast in the same mold and filled with the same spirit, they labored, prayed, and fasted together-all for the glory of God, the benefit of the Church, the good of religion, and the salvation of souls..(4) Doubtless they effected more by their saintly lives and supplications before the throne of mercy than by their sermons, however eloquent and earnest these were.

The early writers speak of none of Saint Dominic’s first disciples more frequently, or in terms of higher praise, than of Blessed Bertrand of Garrigue. They represent him as pious, candid, humble, zealous, much given to prayer, extremely mortified. If we may judge by their representation of him, he was a true Israelite in whom there was no guile, greatly beloved by Saint Dominic, one of his most frequently chosen companions in labor and travel. For this reason, as well as because they had toiled together for years, one can but believe that Bertrand was one of the first to whom Dominic made known his design of establishing an apostolic order, whose primary object should be the salvation of souls through an active ministry, and whose field of operation should embrace the world. In spite of his modesty and retiring manners, Bertrand was the kind of a man who would espouse such a cause with his whole heart, for the grace of God ever impelled him to do all in his power to increase the harvest of heaven.

Thus we find Bertrand of Garrigue at the side of Dominic, when the latter began to gather recruits for the foregoing purpose. Bertrand received the habit at Toulouse in 1215, and in the house which Peter Seila gave Dominic that it might become the first distinct home of the fathers of the new institute. The event must have occasioned the ardent French ecclesiastic no little joy, for he was now in a fair way not only to enlarge the sphere of his spiritual activity, but also to bind himself the more tightly to serve the Church and to magnify the glory of his Creator. Dominic’s happiness could not have been less at having such a man in his little company. The experience of years had taught him the worth of Bertrand, who had shown himself proof against all trials and temptations.

Father Bertrand seems to have been considered by his confrères second in rank (at Toulouse) to the founder of the incipient Order. This, together with the confidence which the venerable founder reposed in him, is shown by the fact that Dominic left him in charge of the community, when be went to Rome in the fall of 1215 to seek papal confirmation for the institute. He well knew that everything would be safe in such bands. After the saint’s return to France, in the late Spring of 1216, Bertrand certainly took an active part in all the deliberations at Toulouse and Prouille, of which we have spoken in the sketches of Blessed Mannes and Matthew of France; but we have no record of what he did.

When they had selected the rule of Saint Augustine of Hippo as the corner-stone on which the projected Order should be established, Dominic returned to the house of Peter Seila, at Toulouse. In July, 1216, Bishop Fulk and his cathedral chapter bestowed on the incipient religious congregation the Church of Saint Romanus, in that city, and a small vacant priory contiguous to it. Into this latter the community was moved at once. There Father John of Navarre made his religious profession on August 28. Shortly after this, Dominic set out for Rome again that he might obtain the final approbation of his Order. But before be left Toulouse he instituted Father Bertrand of Garrigue prior of Saint Romanus’, which made him the third to hold this position among the Friars Preacher, Dominic being the first, and Natalis of Prouille the second..(5)

Bertrand filled the office of superior at Toulouse until after the return of Dominic, with the bulls of confirmation, in May, 1217, or until the renewal of their vows by the brethren at Prouille on the fifteenth of the following August. In the distribution of his disciples which Dominic made at this time, Father Peter Seila became the new prior of Saint Romanus’, Toulouse. Blessed Bertrand was sent to Paris under the leadership of Matthew of France. Possibly, as such temporal affairs are a necessity, the settlement of his little accounts at Saint Romanus’ detained him a while, and was in part the reason why he, Matthew, John of Navarre, and Lawrence of England, who travelled together, did not reach the French capital for about three weeks after the arrival of Blessed Mannes, Michael de Fabra, and Brother Oderic of Normandy, the other three assigned to that mission..(6)

Paris, because of its university, was one of the world’s great intellectual centers. The fact that he sent nearly half of his little company to this place shows the importance which Saint Dominic attached to a good beginning there. He realized that he must put his best foot forward in so renowned an educational city. This most likely explains the choice of Father Matthew as superior. He and Michael de Fabra, it seems, were to occupy themselves largely with the instruction of the new recruits. This left the other four priests, with the possible exception of John of Navarre, to devote their main attention to the work of the apostolate, while Brother Oderic busied himself with the temporal affairs of the house.

Our blessed’s stay in northern France, however, was of short duration. After the death of Count Simon de Montfort, June 25, 1218, while besieging Toulouse, the Albigenses, through their abetters, gained the ascendency in that city. Dominic seems to have foreseen this catastrophe by divine intuition. The new Friars Preacher, because of the former labors of their founder and his companions in those parts, were both feared and bated by those now in power. This circumstance necessitated the departure of Father Peter Seila from Toulouse. Dominic sent him to Saint James’, Paris. But Bertrand of Garrigue was soon returned to Saint Romanus’ as its prior, and made that convent his home until death..(7)

From Toulouse, no doubt, he attended the general chapters held at Bologna in 1220 and 1221. At this last meeting, it will be recalled, the Order was divided into various provinces — eight in number. To that of Provence, which included southern France, was given our blessed as its first provincial. It was hardly to be expected that Dominic would overlook so close and trusted a friend, whom not a few of the writers call his rival in holiness and mortification. The two apostolic men met then for the last time..(8)

Here we must pause in the course of our sketch to gather up a few hagiological points in Blessed Bertrand’s life which we have not touched. The reader has been told of the close friendship that existed between him and Dominic. Judging from the early writers of the Order, up to the time of their separation by the dispersal of the brethren at Prouille, August 15, 1217, we might call him the saint’s travelling companion par excellence; for the holy founder does not seem to have chosen any other to accompany him quite so often. In this way, Bertrand became an eye-witness to a number of the wonderful miracles wrought by Dominic. In obedience to the patriarch’s command he kept them a secret until after the saint’s death; and then he revealed them to only Blessed Jordan of Saxony, who evidently used his authority as Master General to extract a knowledge of them from him..(9)

Bertrand himself seems to have had the reputation of performing miracles. Nor would this be any matter for surprise, when we consider his purity of soul, his spirit of prayer, and his extraordinary severity with himself. More than once Dominic felt obliged to use his authority to make the pious man observe more discretion in his penances. Another matter in which the saint interfered was Bertrand’s habit of incessantly bewailing his imaginary sins. Dominic, who knew well the purity of his heart, commanded him not to weep any more f or his own fancied misdeeds, but for those of the wicked. Almost incredible as it may seem, such was our blessed’s spirit of obedience, this injunction was observed most faithfully.

The last journey of the two holy men together was in the first half of 1219, when Dominic made his way from Spain to Paris. He stopped to visit the communities at Prouille and Toulouse. From the latter he took the prior, Bertrand of Garrigue, as a companion thence to the French capital. They spent one entire night in prayer in Notre Dame Church, at Roe-Amadour, in the Department of Lot, north of Toulouse.

As they travelled along, they spoke only of God or the things of God. Often they sang sacred hymns-especially those to the Blessed Virgin. It was on this occasion that, in answer to their prayers, God gave them the gift of tongues, and enabled them to speak to some German pilgrims in their native language..(10)

Bertrand’s labors in southern France from the time he returned from Paris, in 1218, as prior of Saint Romanus’ were long both trying and delicate. Raymond VI, count of Toulouse, and his son, Raymond VII, held the reins of authority. They were not only open abetters of the Albigenses, but also men of the most turbulent and disingenuous character. Until the surrender of Raymond VII, the last count of Toulouse, to Louis VIII, Bertrand, whether as prior or provincial, had the dangerous task of steering between Scylla and Charybdis. However, his patience, tact, and peaceful disposition guided him safely through those troublous times.

Because of the slow travel of the day and the custom of speedy burial, the subject of our story did not attend the funeral of his friend Saint Dominic, in August, 1221. But we find him at the general chapter assembled at Saint James’, Paris, on May 22, 1222, where he gave his vote to the great Jordan of Saxony for Master General. Bertrand had doubtless known Jordan in Paris, when the latter was a student at the university there. He had also met him at the first general chapter (1220) at Bologna. This casual acquaintance, as seems to have been the case with all who came in contact with the extraordinary Saxon, convinced Bertrand that no better choice could be made f or a successor to the first head and founder of the Order.

As prior of Saint Romanus’, evidently with vicarial powers from Saint Dominic, our blessed began to erect houses here and there. No sooner was he appointed provincial than he showed that no wiser selection could have been made for the office. Back and forth he traversed the Midi, or southern France. His zeal, kindly manners, and saintly life won the confidence of the bishops, the good will of the clergy, the affection of the faithful. Everywhere he was regarded as a saint. Convents of the Order, peopled with exemplary subjects, rose under the influence of his charming personality. These he visited with marked regularity. His confrères considered him a second Dominic. Despite his otherwise busy life, he preached incessantly. On his way from place to place he rarely passed through a city, town, or village without giving the people a sermon. Rarely, if ever, did he fail to draw large crowds, or to meet with a warm approval by his audience.

Saint Dominic’s work in southern France may be said to date from the historic meeting which the papal delegates and missionaries, commissioned to convert the Albigenses, held at Montpellier. Dominic and Bishop Didacus de Azebes formed a part of the assembly. Possibly it was there that Bertrand of Garrigue and the founder of the Friars Preacher first met. This would explain the special affection in which our blessed ever held the Montpellier convent, Saint Matthew’s..(11) There, after hard labors, he loved to retire and recuperate his spirit and his energy in prayer and retreat. This was one of the first houses he had built; for it was erected in 1220, or before he became provincial.

An incident told in connection with one of the holy man’s sojourns at Montpellier is so full of interest, as well as so illustrative of his character, that it deserves a place in these pages. Possibly in consequence of Saint Dominic’s command not to weep for his own imagined misdeeds, but for those of the wicked, Bertrand very frequently said mass for the conversion of sinners, and rarely for the dead. A Father Benedict of the Montpellier community ventured to ask him the reason for this custom. The reply was that those who die in grace are sure of salvation, and the Church is always praying for them; whilst sinners are continually in danger of losing their souls, and are never safe. Benedict then asked him, if he had two beggars before him, one of whom was strong and able-bodied, and the other without feet or bands, which would he help? The one who could do nothing for himself was the immediate reply. That is precisely the case with the dead, said Benedict. They can do nothing for themselves. But sinners can help themselves by a reformation.

Our blessed, as the story runs, was not fully convinced by his confrère’s argument. The next night he had a frightful dream of a soul in purgatory, which awoke him from his slumbers time and time again. When morning came, be told his friend, Father Benedict, of his distressful experience. From that time he frequently said mass for the departed souls..(12)

Evidently Blessed Jordan and the fathers of the Province of Provence were eminently satisfied with Bertrand as provincial, for they seem to have kept him in the position until death. One of the things which he ever sought to impress on the minds of those under his charge was that the calling of a Friar Preacher is to labor for the salvation of souls; or, as he was wont to express it, to convert sinners. In this, as in all things else, he set the example which he wished others to follow. While the embodiment of kindness towards those under his charge, or with whom he came in contact, he showed himself no mercy. Ceaselessly did he toil on and on and on until the end. He died in harness..(13)

The holy man’s last apostolic work was for the Cistercian Sisters of Notre Dame of the Woods (“du Bosquet”), which Father Touron says was in the old County (Comtat) of Venaissin, and the Année Dominicaine at Bouchet, in the Diocese of Valence. These austere religious asked Bertrand to give them a course of sermons on the spiritual life. While thus engaged, he fell sick and died. This was in 1230, but the time of the year is not known. As the Friars Preacher then had no house in the vicinity, the first provincial of the Province of Provence was buried in the conventual cemetery of the Cistercian Nuns near the apse of the abbatial church.

Blessed Bertrand had always enjoyed a great reputation for sanctity. Shortly after his death marvellous cures began to be wrought through his intercession. In consequence of this, the sisters had an altar erected to his honor in their church, and placed his statue on it. Then his remains were moved under this altar. When the body was taken from the grave, although he had been dead twenty-three years, it was found to be wholly intact. From this time until more than a century and a half afterwards Notre Dame of the Woods was one of the most popular places of pilgrimage in southern France. Many miracles occurred there. Devotion to the holy Friar Preacher was not only intense, but also widespread.

Then came the unfortunate Schism of the West, with its chilling effect on the piety of the faithful. As is always the case, the religious houses were the first to suffer from the demoralization; the more rigid their rule, the quicker their decline. The great Notre Dame of the Woods became all but desolated, and the convent was fast falling into ruins. For this reason, in 1413, the few remaining sisters were removed to the larger Abbey of Aiguebelle. Then the Friars Preacher, who now had a house at Orange, transferred the relics of their saintly confrère to their church in that city, and enshrined them under the main altar. Almost immediately the sacred edifice became a noted place of pilgrimage. But the devotion to Blessed Bertrand did not cease at the former Notre Dame of the Woods and its vicinity. Indeed, as will now be seen, it was fortunate that his relics bad long been left there.

The mad vagaries of Martin Luther soon made their way into southern France, where they found many followers who have become known in history as Huguenots. They were even more violent than the Albigenses had been. In 1545, they gained the ascendency in Orange. Sixteen years later (1561), they seized the Dominican church by night, and appropriated it to their own usages. The interior of the sacred edifice was completely demolished. Altars, crucifixes, statues, and all other religious objects, that could not be converted into coin, were torn to pieces and burned. Even the body of Blessed Bertrand of Garrigue, which until then had remained incorrupt, was ruthlessly consigned to the flames. Those who are over prone to censure the cruelty meted out to the Huguenots of France at a later date should reflect that it was largely brought on them by their own misdeeds.

As was but natural, this act of desecration, by depriving the faithful of Orange of every vestige of (and physical contact, so to express it, with) the man of God, greatly lessened the devotion towards him in that city and its environs. Happily, the band of tyranny and impiety bore with less weight on the rural parish at Bouchet, whose people continued to venerate our blessed and to seek his intercession before the throne of divine mercy.

There can be no doubt that the tombstone which marked Bertrand’s grave in the quondam cemetery of the Cistercian Sisters of Notre Dame of the Woods, and the altar and statue erected to his honor in their church, aided greatly in the preservation of this tender devotion at Bouchet. Hither people came from far and near to pray. From the place where his body had lain earth was taken as a cure for all kinds of ailments. Many miracles were attributed to him. The graveyard of Notre Dame of the Woods became known as “Saint Bertrand’s Cemetery,” the name which it still bears. The red-handed revolutionists of 1790 destroyed his altar and mutilated his statue; but even the remnants of the latter continued to be cherished as something sacred.

By good fortune, these miscreants overlooked the Friar Preacher’s tombstone and former grave. Possibly it was God’s way of keeping alive the memory of Saint Dominic’s early disciple and co-laborer. In any ,case, devotion and veneration towards him did not wane. In 1870, the Right Rev. Francis N. Gueulette, bishop of Valence, gave his juridical approval to the immemorial cult of Bertrand in his diocese. From that time the cause of the beatification of the first bead of the Province of Provence was urged at Rome by the cardinals, archbishops, and bishops of Paris, Toulouse, Marseilles, Valence, Nimes, Avignon, Besancon, Carcasonne, Montpellier, Orleans, and Cahors, as well as by his own Order. The cardinal archbishop of Bologna, Italy, and the bishop of Cordova, Spain, also took an active interest in the matter..(14)

Finally the Sacred Congregation of Rites sanctioned the cult of Blessed Bertrand of Garrigue. This was by a decree of date July 12, 1881. Two days later, the great Leo XIII gave it his formal approval, and allowed his mass and office to the Order of Preachers and the dioceses of Nimes and Valence. September 6 was assigned as his feast day.

We’ll expose your secret, .... BY Buhari’s ex-bodyguards